By Scott Smyers
The struggle for fair treatment of all races, under both the law and in society at large, began in Massachusetts well before the Boston Massacre and the Revolutionary War. The people involved in this process ranged across all social and economic classes and included both black and white leaders, escaped slaves and prominent, white politicians. So many interesting, brave black and white individuals, often working together, played important roles in eroding state-sanctioned slavery, thus increasing freedom and opportunities for all Americans. Although there was gradual progress toward this goal, it often proceeded by taking two steps forward and one, two or three painful steps back, repeatedly, for over 160 years until the Civil War. This is a summary of real history from Massachusetts including Acton and shows clearly, the Revolutionary War was not fought to maintain slavery, as proposed in the 1619 Project (the new “standard” hastily integrated into our public schools during the summer of 2020 in the name of “anti-racism”). If you are uneasy about this being taught in our schools, and accepted as fact by parents and school administrators, you are not alone and you have good instincts.
The following information is based on a combination of information from The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution by William C. Nell (1855), the Acton Historical Society, and other references with links provided in the text. Nell’s work is of particular interest as he was a free black man, a historian, and very active in the abolitionist movement in Boston.
Early Massachusetts Before the Revolution
In 1646, two slaves were brought to Boston from Guinea and when it was discovered they had been kidnapped, a Massachusetts court heard their case, ruled in their favor, returned them to their home and set them free. In 1701 Boston passed its first anti-slavery policy discouraging the importation of slaves and four years later, a heavy tax was assessed on every imported slave, then in 1712 the importation of native “Indians” as slaves was forbidden.
Acton was officially incorporated in 1735 and one requirement to forming a new town was to complete a meeting house and hire a minister. The Reverend Swift was Acton’s first minister. He was there during the Revolutionary War and comforted the families of the fallen soldiers from Acton after the battles of Concord and Lexington. He also inherited a slave from his father. It is unclear if he had sold the slave before or after coming to Acton. This is an important fact to consider that at the time of Acton’s founding the person in the community considered to have the highest moral character owned a slave. This exemplifies how when judging historical characters, they should NOT be judged based on modern social standards. This standard lesson is true and important to reiterate.
During the 1760s, the lawyer James Otis represented Bostonians tired of British soldiers forcibly occupying homes with no regard to the owners’ protests. Although race was not the focus of the trial, during the case, which set the stage in part for the forthcoming Revolution, he asserted that,
“Our colonial characters make no difference between black and white colonists.”
Massachusetts passed a resolution in 1764 as part of the Rights of the British Colonies where “all the colonists are, by the law of nature, freeborn, as, indeed all men are, white or black;”
A Petition of Slaves in Boston was presented to the General Court in 1773. It eventually passed both houses, but then was not signed by the Governor. They tried again with the next governor, but that did not work either. Thanks to some of the legal groundwork set by Otis and others (specifically establishing jurisdiction of the principle of emancipation), in 1770 a slave from Cambridge named James successfully sued for his own freedom and won! This began a series of successful lawsuits for freedom of individual slaves across Massachusetts, often represented by white lawyers who were against slavery.
In the years leading up to, and during the Revolutionary War, public opinion in Massachusetts was strongly in favor of the abolition of slavery and in some rural jurisdictions, they voted to abolish slavery within their communities. In other circumstances, slave owners set their slaves free so that they could avoid guilt and hypocrisy (supporting a war on behalf of freedom while in possession of the slave did not sit well with their morals).
Revolutionary War
As the War began, the military was desperate for anyone willing and able to fight. Although southerners resisted allowing black soldiers, when the British promised freedom to any slaves who fought for them, Washington agreed to allow enlistment of all races. Although Rhode Island had a segregated unit of black soldiers, the remaining army was fully integrated. New England had different ways to incorporate free black men into their state’s forces, but in general they sent more free black men compared to other colonies.
The number of black soldiers that served heroically include some names that warrant further attention including Peter Salem, George Middleton, Primus Hall (Prince Hall’s son), and of course John Oliver, William Cutting, and Caesar Thompson of Acton. Crispus Attucks was not a soldier, but a rope maker and made his living at sea and was upset how the British were regularly placing barricades to his ability to make living. On March 5, 1770, he hastily organized a protest that resulted in taunting guards, who shot and killed Attucks. He was buried together with his fallen white protesters (Boston waived their grave segregation policy) in Granary Burial Grounds after what came to be known as the Boston Massacre.
The integration of black soldiers into the units from New England was not embraced by outsiders. For example, General Schuyler of NY was not impressed with the white or black troops from New England sent to fight under his command at Saratoga in 1777. He complained the men were either too old, too young, or “… mortifying, barely to mention” black. General Shuyler’s attempt at insult should be received as a point of pride for New England.
The Massachusetts Constitution was adopted in 1780 and the declaration proclaims, “All men are born free and equal,” and the authors were purposely inclusive by not mentioning race. Fifteen years later, Judge Tucker from Virginia challenged the legal authority Massachusetts claimed over “property” of Virginians (slaves) living freely as emancipated slaves in Massachusetts. Representing Massachusetts, Dr. Belknap responded that this statement was inserted not merely as a moral or political truth, but with a particular view to establish the liberation of the slaves on a general principle, and this was understood by the people at large.
In 1781 a slave owner named Jennison from central MA kidnapped and beat his escaped slave named Walker, but the case ended up in court. The owner produced all the correct paperwork verifying his ownership, but the MA Supreme Court sided with Walker in 1783. The judge said, “there can be no such thing as perpetual servitude …”, slavery was unconstitutional in Massachusetts, and the jury must consider Walker a free man when deciding if Jennison was guilty of assault and battery. Although indentured servitude continued illegally for many years, this ruling had a profound effect and freedom increased across Massachusetts thereafter.
Prince Hall, a free black man of Boston who encouraged enlistment of black soldiers in the Revolutionary War (including his own son), was a well-known businessman and respected leader. He started African Lodge #1 in 1775, the first club of its kind open to free black people and it became an important institute influencing the community through a private school for its members children and providing a network for businesses and political influence.
Post-War Advancement of Freedom and Abolitionists in Acton
After the war, in 1785 Cesar Thompson married Azubah Henrick in Acton’s church and their children baptized demonstrating that at least one black family in town was a member of Acton’s early church community. Interestingly, Thompson was married again later the same year, to Peggy Green. His first wife likely passed away, but the records are unclear.
After the US Constitution was enacted in 1788, the influence of racism from southern representatives began to work its way into Massachusetts thanks to Federal statutes. The most extreme example came 62 years later, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which forced northern states to assist in the return of slaves to their owners. Unfortunately, in 1851, ironically in the same part of Boston where Crispus Attucks was gunned down 80 years prior, Thomas Sims and Anthony Burns were captured in Boston, tried in a local Federal Court, and returned to the South.
Abolitionists gained in numbers and confidence. In the early 1800s more Actonian’s officially identified as Free Persons of Color on the census. Including 12 Free Persons of Color living at John Oliver’s in 1830. Oliver was also reimbursed by the Town for his contributions to help the less fortunate citizens, which was a common practice at the time.
There were big changes in Acton in the 1830s and a new church was constructed for the New Evangelical Society of Acton. This new church came with a new minister who invigorated the congregation and attracted new members. Reverend Woodbury led this new Church for 20 years (1832-1852) and was a leading abolitionist and active in Acton, Middlesex County, and frequently featured at anti-slavery conventions and published in the Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper published in Boston by William Lloyd Garrison. Rev. Woodbury and New Evangelical Society of Acton were prominent players in the abolitionist movement.
Ten years into Woodbury’s leadership (1842), political petitions made their way to Acton’s residents. The first allowed intermarriage between races and the second forbid slavery in territories being considered for statehood. John Oliver’s granddaughter, Abigail Richardson (Oliver) Chaffin signed both. Not only did she sign them, but she was also the third or fourth person to sign each one, indicating she could have been a leader and passionate about these causes. Mrs. Chaffin was a prominent and well-respected person in Acton and her son Nathan was successful in the restaurant business in Boston.
Woodbury was not only a minister, but a State Representative. In 1851 Rev. Woodbury secured funding to erect the Acton Monument. The same year, a group of black citizens had submitted a petition for state funds to erect a monument to Crispus Attucks. Their petition was denied, but one of the authors (William Nell) complained and pointed out the hypocrisy of how funding was approved, celebrating white soldiers from “Concord” by the same legislature in the same session.
Although the Fugitive Slave Act (mentioned above) had been passed by Congress, Acton proudly took a stand against this racist law. In 1851, Acton Town Meeting opposed this law, stating, “the Citizens of Acton feel it our duty to express in this public manner our views of this, as we believe, unjust and despotic law.”
Civil War
Although most of this article focuses on the time before and after the Revolutionary War, during the Civil War, some of Acton’s volunteer soldiers were once again some of the first to fight. The Massachusetts’ 6th was one of the first units to fight and sustain casualties in the Baltimore Riots at the start of the Civil War. In addition, some officers from Acton took great risk by volunteering to serve as officers with black enlisted soldiers. Massachusetts took the lead on this by preparing and sending Massachusetts 54th and 55th Infantries, the first units to contain black soldiers to fight for the Union. When the southerners heard of this, they thought it would inspire slave rebellions and proclaimed the Confederate Army was to immediately kill any white officer captured leading any black soldiers.
There are many historical stories from Massachusetts and the Revolutionary War we can all learn from and teach in our schools. We can continue to find parts of history that were unreported or under reported, but we cannot change history. It is true that Massachusetts and Acton have a unique place in our history, and we can be proud of many examples of people from different races working together to achieve a better society without discounting examples of historical racism, racists laws, and their effects on society.
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Good day Scott,
I love this wonderful research as it has been a great help in my personal research endeavors. I am currently looking into a certain John Ruggles Cotting (Surname changed from Cutting in 1811) who comes from Acton and is descended from a certain William Cutting (whether the one you mentioned in your research is his father or grandfather, I am unsure).
What interests me is John’s stay at Harvard (1797-1800) and Dartmouth (1801-1802) which would possibly make him the first if not earliest known black student at Harvard.
I would love to talk to you more about this, so please do contact me if you wish.
Hello Dominic,
Thank you for your message. I’ve sent you a direct message with some more information.
-Scott
Thanks I’ll check it out
I’ve read quite a bit about what has come to be known as the Boston Massacre and I’m currently reading Dan Abrams’ book about John Adams’ defense of Captain Prescott and the soldiers using the transcript of the trial. I’ve never heard there characterization of Attucks as “organizing a protest” in any of that reading. I’d love to know the source of that understanding, as it’s foreign to me. Thanks in advance
“On March 5, 1770, he hastily organized a protest that resulted in taunting guards, who shot and killed Attucks”
My sources do not have much more information. Does it really matter if he organized it that day or the week before? Your own quote says he “hastily organized a protest” and my statement is not in conflict with this characterization. My point was that Attucks was THE leader not a peripheral character who happened to get shot. His leadership role should be highlighted more in teaching about this historical event.
That’s not my quote – it’s in quotes to indicate it’s from your essay. It’s not mine. I’ve never heard any characterization of him as being part of a protest at all – a week before or ever. It seems accepted that he was upset about his situation – as were many in occupied Boston. I’ve just never, in any reading, heard any mention of a protest.
I was asking for the source – I’ve read much about the Boston Massacre, Attucks (with very little known about him at all), and Adams. So my inquiry stands. I’m not denigrating Attucks or the occupied colonists, but so much mythology surrounds the event, prompted mainly by Paul Revere’s famous sketch that makes it look like a firing squad. Is it unacceptable to ask for further clarification?
Thanks for the clarification. I’m so pleased you are interested in this particular part of history. I was myself surprised at this part of the story. The following is from Nell’s book I cite as my primary source. For this part, Nell cite’s “Botta’s History and Hewes’s Reminiscences (the tea party survivor), establish the fact the colored man, Attucks, was of and with the people, and never regarded otherwise.”
NOTE on Street names: I have not reviewed the references to street names in the following, but I know from other parts of the same book, that some street names in Boston have changed since the 1700s (e.g. Belknap St is now Joy Street near the Common, which is featured in a good story regarding Colonel Middleton
“Attucks had formed the patriots in Dock Square, from whence they marched up King street, passing through the street up the main guard, in order to make the attack.”
After the British guard were called and marched toward the Custom House, “they encountered a band of the populace, led by a mulatto named Attucks, who brandished their clubs, and pelted them with snowballs.”
“John Adams, counsel for the soldiers, admitted that Attucks appeared to have undertaken to be the hero of the the night, and to lead the people. He and Caldwell, not being residents of Boston, were both buried from Faneuil Hall. The citizens generally participated in the solemnities.”
As I explained in the article, but worth repeating, to connect this to Acton and the Monument in the Town Center, our monument was funded by state taxes the same year (1851) Nell and his fellow free black citizens were denied funding for a monument to Attucks in Boston.
Scott, your research is exemplary, – but the School Committee Karens won’t give a damn.
They’ve been conditioned to see racism and oppression everywhere, to view American History and Traditions as tainted, and today they’re busy throwing out (burning?) their collections of Mr. Potato Head and Dr. Seuss.
How they FEEL is more important than any mere History. For them, admitting that they acted in haste and ignorance would be like admitting that Biden has dementia.
In fear, ignorance, and reinforcing each other’s cowardly emotions, – they’ve become a 21st Century Liberal Lynch Mob. Their own children should be thoroughly ashamed of them.
Thanks for this. What streets/buildings/other assets in Acton or boxborough are named foe people of color or women? I’m not aware of any.
Ginny – from my work on the CPC, I learned that Gardner field is named for Harriet Gardner, a school teacher. Also, the new East Acton Village Green to be located at the corner of Concord Rd and Great Rd will be dedicated to Mary Michelman, Miki Williams, and Carol Holley, three active town volunteers.
Good and interesting history lesson. But super defensive in tone. People of color here have a complex past. Most of it involves brutal supression and knees on necks. There certainly are examples of tolerance. But you ignore the obvious.
What a thoroughly researched and well-penned article! This is great work, and enriches the effort to tell new stories about the history of Acton! I love the details about Reverend Woodbury’s leadership and Abigail Chaffin signing the petitions.